Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

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N.B.
Adjectives ending with a vowel and a consonant double the consonant

for example : big - bigger- the biggest,
except when the consonant is 'w' or 'y'
for example : new - newer - the newest.
Use Comparative adjectives are used to compare two things or people to each other.

Superlative adjectives are used to compare one member of a group to the whole group.

Ex : The Amazon river is longer than the Mississippi.
The Nile is the longest river in the world.

from: Learn English Today

Past Perfect Tense

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The Past Perfect is used to refer to actions which took place before a specific time in the past.

ex : Yesterday, between 4 pm and 6 pm, Paul played a game of tennis with a friend.

His mother arrived at 6 pm. When his mother arrived, Paul had finished the game.


◊ The Past Perfect Continuous (had been playing) is used to refer to a past continuous action.

ex : Before his mother arrived, Paul had been playing tennis with a friend.

from: Learn English Today

Adverbs of frequency

Frequency Adverbs

Adverbs such as : always, already, ever, never, often, rarely, seldom, sometimes, still, usually,
are placed as follows in sentences :

After the verb BE : Tom is always late.

► Before other verbs : Tom sometimes takes the bus.

► Between two verbs : Tom has never travelled on the
Eurostar.

or after the first verb if there are more than two : I would never have thought that

EXCEPT if the second verb is an infinitive : Tom often needs to buy petrol


Frequency Phrases

Frequency phrases such as : every day, once in a while, etc. go at the beginning or at the end of sentences :

► I wash my hair every day.
► Once a month I go to the hairdresser's.

from: Learn English Today

Must and Have To

Must and have to both express obligation. However, they are used differently depending on who imposes the obligation.

MUST

The speaker thinks it is necessary.

-I must buy flowers for my mother(It's her birthday and I decide to do that)

-"You must take more exercise"says the doctor. (The doctor thinks it is necessary).

-I must ask my secretary to book a flight for me. (It is important for me not to forget.)

-"Dogs must be kept on a lead"(Written on a sign in the park = a rule which must be respected)



HAVE TO

Someone else thinks it is necessary.


-I have to buy flowers for my mother-in-law. (It is not my decision - my husband asked me to do it.)

-I have to take more exercise.(doctor's orders!)

-I have to call the travel agency. (My boss asked me to book a flight.)

-I have to keep my dog on a lead.(That's what the sign tells me to do.)

N.B. In the negative form, the meaning changes!


MUST NOT (MUSTN'T)
You mustn't tell George = it's important not to tell George = don't tell George

DO NOT HAVE TO (DON'T HAVE TO)
You don't have to tell George = you can tell George if you like, but it isn't necessary. It's your decision.

from: LEarn English Today

for - since - ago

For - since - ago are used to talk about time
For is used to say how long an action or situation lasts.



*For is used with the Present Perfect :


- I have been waiting at the bus stop for 10 minutes.

- I have lived in this country for 10 years.



*For can also be used with other tenses :


- Present : I go on holidays for two weeks every year in the summer.

- Past : When I was sixteen, I stayed in London for two months.

- Future : During my trip to California next month, I will be in San Diego for two days.



Since is used to refer to the starting point of actions or situations.

It is generally used with the Present Perfect.


* I have been waiting for the bus since 8 o'clock.

* I live in Tokyo. I have lived in Tokyo since September 2000.


Ago is used to say when past events happened, going back from today towards the past.


* I came to Tokyo three years ago.

* I arrived at the bus stop ten minutes ago.

* I visited New York two years ago.

from: Learn English Today

few - fewer - fewest / little - less - least

Few and little are both quantifiers which have a negative meaning : 'not a lot'.


Their use with countable or uncountable nouns is shown in the table below.


In the examples given, apples is a plural countable noun, modified by fewer and fewest.

Milk is an uncountable noun, modified by less and least.


Meaning and use Example

Few - Meaning : not many/not a lot

- Used before plural nouns.

There are few apples at the market
today.

Fewer - Meaning : not as many

- Used before plural nouns

The supermarket has fewer apples.


Fewest - Meaning : the smallest number

- Used with 'the' before plural nouns

This shop has the fewest
apples.

Little - Meaning : not much/not a lot

- Used before uncountable nouns.

There is little milk left in the
bottle.


Less - Meaning : not as much

- Used before uncountable nouns.

We bought less milk yesterday.


Least - Meaning : the smallest quantity

- Used with 'the' before uncountable nouns.

The child refused to
drink the least milk.


N.B.
'A few' and 'a little' have a positive meaning : a small quantity.
- There are a few apples. There is a little milk.

from: Learn English Today

WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

Useful phrases

Salutation

Dear Mr Brown
Dear Ms White
Dear Sir
Dear Sirs
Dear Madam
Dear Sir or Madam
Gentlemen


Starting


We are writing to inform you that ... to confirm ... to request ... to enquire about ...
I am contacting you for the following reason.
I recently read/heard about . . . and would like to know . . .
Having seen your advertisement in ... , I would like to ...
I would be interested in (obtaining/receiving) ...
I received your address from ... and would like to ...
I am writing to tell you about ...


Referring to previous contact

Thank you for your letter of March 15 ...
Thank you for contacting us.
In reply to your request ...
Thank you for your letter regarding ...
With reference to our telephone conversation yesterday ...
Further to our meeting last week ...
It was a pleasure meeting you in London last month.
I enjoyed having lunch with you last week in Tokyo.
I would just like to confirm the main points we discussed on Tuesday . . .


Making a request

We would appreciate it if you would ...
I would be grateful if you could...
Could you please send me . . .
Could you possibly tell us/let us have...
In addition, I would like to receive ...
It would be helpful if you could send us ...
I am interested in (obtaining/receiving...)
I would appreciate your immediate attention to this matter.
Please let me know what action you propose to take.


Offering help


We would be happy to ...
Would you like us to ...
We are quite willing to ...
Our company would be pleased to ...


Giving good news


We are pleased to announce that ...
I am delighted to inform you that ...
You will be pleased to learn that ...


Giving bad news

We regret to inform you that ...
I'm afraid it would not be possible to ...
Unfortunately we cannot/we are unable to ...
After careful consideration we have decided (not) to ...


Complaining


I am writing to express my dissatisfaction with ...
I am writing to complain about ...
Please note that the goods we ordered on (date) have not yet arrived.
We regret to inform you that our order n°--- is now considerably overdue.
I would like to query the transport charges which seem unusually high.


Apologizing

We are sorry for the delay in replying ...
I regret any inconvenience caused
I would like to apologize for (the delay/the inconvenience) ...
Once again, I apologise for any inconvenience.


Orders


Thank you for your quotation of ...
We are pleased to place an order with your company for ...
We would like to cancel our order n°...
Please confirm receipt of our order.
I am pleased to acknowledge receipt of your order n°...
Your order will be processed as quickly as possible.
It will take about (three) weeks to process your order.
We can guarantee delivery before ...
Unfortunately these articles are no longer available/are out of stock.


Prices


Please send us your price list.
You will find enclosed our most recent catalogue and price list.
Please note that our prices are subject to change without notice.
We have pleasure in enclosing a detailed quotation.
We can make you a firm offer of ...
Our terms of payment are as follows :


Referring to payment


Our records show that we have not yet received payment of ...
According to our records ...
Please send payment as soon as possible.
You will receive a credit note for the sum of ...


Enclosing documents


I am enclosing ...
Please find enclosed ...
You will find enclosed ...


Closing remarks

If we can be of any further assistance, please let us know
If I can help in any way, please do not hesitate to contact me
If you require more information ...
For further details ...
Thank you for taking this into consideration
Thank you for your help.
We hope you are happy with this arrangement.
We hope you can settle this matter to our satisfaction.


Referring to future business

We look forward to a successful working relationship in the future
We would be (very) pleased to do business with your company.
I would be happy to have an opportunity to work with your firm.


Referring to future contact

I look forward to seeing you next week
Looking forward to hearing from you
" " to receiving your comments
I look forward to meeting you on the 15th
I would appreciate a reply at your earliest convenience.



Ending

Sincerely, }
Yours sincerely, } (for all customers/clients)
Sincerely yours, }
Regards, (for those you already know and have a working relationship with)

from: Learn English Today

Telephone Conversation Expressions

Useful telephone vocabulary and phrases in English

►Making contact

Hello/Good morning/Good afternoon ..
This is John Brown speaking.
Could I speak to .......... please?I'd like to speak to .......... please.
I'm trying to contact ..........


►Giving more information

• I'm calling from Tokyo/Paris/New York/Sydney • I'm calling on behalf of (Mr. X ...)

►Taking a call

X speaking
Can I help you?


►Asking for a name/information

Who's calling please?
Who's speaking?
Where are you calling from?
Are you sure you have the right number/name?


►Asking the caller to wait

Hold the line please
Could you hold on please
Just a moment please

►Connecting

Thank you for holding
The line's free now ..... I'll put you through
I'll connect you now / I'm connecting you now.

►Giving negative information

I'm afraid the line's engaged. Could you call back later?
I'm afraid he's in a meeting at the moment
I'm sorry. He's out of the office today / He isn't in at the moment.
I'm afraid we don't have a Mr/Mrs/Miss ... here
I'm sorry. There's nobody here by that name.
Sorry. I think you've dialled the wrong number.
I'm afraid you've got the wrong number.

►Telephone problems

The line is very bad. Could you speak up please?
Could you repeat that please?
I'm afraid I can't hear you.
Sorry. I didn't catch that.
Could you say that again please?

►Leaving/taking a message

Can I leave/take a message?
Would you like to leave a message?
Could you give him/her a message?
Could you ask him/her to call me back?
Would you like him/her to call you back?
Could you tell him/her that I called?
Could you give me your name please?
Could you spell that please?
What's your number please?

from: Learn English Today

Conditionals 1-2

Conditional Tense

(example : to call)


Affirmative

I would call

You would call

He/she/it would call

We would call

You would call

They would call


Negative


Long Form Contracted Form

I would not call I wouldn't call

You would not call You wouldn't call

He would not call He wouldn't call

We would not call We wouldn't call

You would not call You wouldn't call

They would not call They wouldn't call


Interrogative

Would I call?

Would you call?

Would he call?

Would we call?

Would you call?

Would they call?


1) The conditional: would + verb, is used to refer to an imaginary or hypothetical situation, with an 'if' clause in the past.


Ex : ◊ If I saw an accident, I would call an ambulance.


◊ I would call an ambulance if I saw an accident.


It is possible that you will never see an accident, but here you are describing your probable reaction in such circumstances.

Tom is not rich but he likes fast cars.
◊ If Tom had more money, he would buy a fast car.


2) In English, there are different conditional structures :


Present + Present (what is recommended in this situation) If you see an accident, call a doctor!


Present + Future (possible future situation) If I see an accident, I will call a doctor.


Past + Conditional (imaginary situation) If I saw an accident, I would call a doctor.


Past Perfect + Conditional Perfect
(the accident occurred but I didn't see it) If I had seen the accident,
I would have called a doctor.


from: LEARN ENGLISH TODAY

Present Perfect Tense 1-2

Present Perfect Simple

Affirmative

I have done

You have done

He/she/is has done

We have done

They have done

You have done

Negative

Long Form Contracted Form

I have not done I haven't done

You have not done You haven't done

He/she/it has not done He/she/it hasn't done

We have not done We haven't done

You have not done You haven't done

They have not done They haven't done

Interrogative

Have I done?

Have you done?

Has he/she/it done?

Have we done?

Have you done?

Have they done?

from: LEARN ENGLISH TODAY

Perfect Present - Past Simple

(I have finished) (I finished)

When do we use them?

PRESENT PERFECT

The Present Perfect is used to link the present and the past.

The Present Perfect is used :

1. To talk about an action which started in the past and continues today.

For and since are used to express duration.

◊ I have lived here for 10 years. I have lived here since 1998.

(I arrived here 10 years ago and I am still here.)

2. To refer to past events in an unfinished period of time :

◊ I have written two letters today.

(Two letters are written but today is not finished.)

3. To talk about recent events that have just happened or been announced :

◊ There has been a plane crash near the coast.

(We know the event took place but we don't know when.)

4. To talk about a past action with a result in the present :

◊ I've broken my arm. I can't drive. (= because my arm is broken now)

5. To talk and ask about experiences or accomplishments up to the time of speaking, but at no specific time.

" I'm a writer. I've written 9 books."

" Have you ever written a biography?" "No never."

PAST SIMPLE

The Past Simple is used to talk about past events which happened in a finished period of time.

The Past Simple is used :

1. When the period of time is finished :

◊ I wrote two letters yesterday.

(Yesterday is finished.)

2. When the time is mentioned, either a precise time in the past, or a time expression which clearly situates the event in the past:

◊ I lived in the country

... until the age of 6

... when I was young

... from 1985 to 1992

... before we moved to London

... a long time ago

NB : As a general rule, if you can answer the question "when?", use the Past Simple

FROM: LEARN ENGLISH TODAY

Present Continuous Tense 1

(example : to play)

Affirmative

I am playing

You are playing

He/she/it is playing

We are playing

You are playing

They are playing


Negative

Long Form Contracted Form

I am not playing I'm not playing

You are not playing You're not playing

He/she/it is not playing He/she/it's not playing

We are not playing We aren't playing

You are not playing You're not playing

They are not playing They aren't playing


Interrogative

Am I playing?

Are you playing?

Is he/she/it playing?

Are we playing?

Are you playing?

Are they playing?


The Present Continuous is used :

● To talk about continuous activities :

1) at the time of speaking :
- I am reading this page now.
2) around now, in a more general sense :
- I am learning English this year

● To talk about planned future arrangements :

- Next month I am spending my holidays in Australia.
I have already booked my flight.

- Our neighbours are coming to dinner tomorrow.
They have accepted our invitation.


FROM: LEARN ENGLISH TODAY

Already - still - always - yet

ALREADY :

Already is used to say that something has happened earlier than expected or earlier than it might have happened.

"Hurry up Susan. Breakfast is ready!"
"I've already had breakfast thanks. I woke up early."

STILL :

Still is used to refer to continuing situations. "They've been married for 40 years and they still love each other."


ALWAYS :

Always refers to something which happens regularly. "I always send cards at Christmas."


YET :

Yet is used :

- to ask if something expected has happened : "Has the postman arrived yet?"


- to say that something expected hasn't happened : "The postman hasn't arrived yet."

from: Learn English Today

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS


In English, there are two kinds of nouns: count nouns and non-count nouns. It is important to understand the difference between them, because they often use different articles, and non-count nouns usually have no plural


1.Countable nounsThey deal with things that we can count: one dog, a mule, one man, the barber shop.

They usually have a singular and plural form: two dogs, ten mules, six men, ten barber shops.


2. Uncountable nounsThey deal with things that we do not usually count: tea, sugar, water, air, rice, etc. or for abstract ideas or qualities such as knowledge, beauty, anger, fear, love.

They do not usually have a plural form.

Examples of common uncountable nouns:money, advice, information, furniture, happiness, sadness, news, research, evidence, safety, beauty, knowledge.

You can usually work out whether a noun is count or non-count by thinking about it.

Count nouns are usually objects which can be counted.

Non-count nouns are often substances (such as sand, water or rice) which cannot be easily counted, or they may be large abstract ideas such as "nature", "space" or "entertainment".

You can put "a" or "an" before count nouns.

For example:
I have an apple.
She doesn't need a table.

You can also use "How many" with count nouns:

How many horses are there in the farm?

You can put "some" before noncount nouns.

For example:

I have some chocolate at the party.

I just had some rice for lunch.

You can also use "How much" with non-count nouns:

How much traffic is there in San Francisco?


3. Container, Piece, and Measurement Words


Many things that you can buy in a supermarket are noncount

i.e. soap, cereal, butter, beef, ice, etc.

However, we often want to talk about certain quantities of these things.

In order to do this, we divide them into units that can be counted.

Here is where the container words become handy.

Container words

: a can of...,
a box of...,
a bowl of ...,
a glass of ...i.e.

I bought two boxes of cereal.

Piece words:
a piece of, a slice of...,
a bar of ...i.e.
A slice of pizza.
Who needs a piece of paper?

Measurement words:
a quart of...,
a liter of...:
i.e. She has to get two quarts of milk.
At the brunch, Angela had a bowl of Jell-O, a piece of cake, two slices of cheese, and a cup of coffee.

some - any - a little - a few

Some-any-a little- a few are used to express quantity, to say or ask if you have a quantity of something or not.


Some is used in affirmative sentences, and also when asking for or offering something.

Any is used in negative and interrogative sentences.

A few is used with countable nouns :

a few apples.

A little is used with uncountable nouns : a little cheese.



Affirmative

There are some apples.

(We don't know how many, but the bowl is not empty)

We can also say : There are a few apples, i.e. not many, a small number.

There is a little cheese

Negative

There aren't any apples (The bowl is empty)

There aren't many apples

There isn't much cheese.


Interrogative

Are there any apples? (We want to know if the bowl contains apples)

Are there many apples?

Is there much cheese?


N.B. Asking and Offering : Can I have/would you like some coffee?

from: Learn English Today

a lot of - much - many

A lot of - much - many are used to express quantity.

A lot of : can be used in all sentences, affirmative, negative and interrogative.

Much-many : are used in negative and interrogative sentences. They are rarely used in affirmative sentences, except if they begin the sentence (see table below).

Much is used with uncountable nouns (for example : much English) Many is used with countable nouns (for example : many words).

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

We learn a lot of English. I don't know a lot of English. Do you learn a lot of English?

I make a lot of mistakes. I don't know much English. Do you know much English?


I don't know a lot of words. Do you make a lot of
BUT... mistakes?
I don't know many words. Do you make many mistakes?
Much of our food is exported.

Many people drive too fast.

Compare a lot of and a lot :

◊ Tom knows a lot of vocabulary.

◊ Tom is talkative. He talks a lot.

from: Learn English Today

Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are a type of auxiliary verb which express the mood of another verb.They are used to express ideas such as possibility, prediction, speculation, deduction and necessity.

Modal Concept Example

Can Ability: Julie can swim.

Permission : Can I come with you? ('May' is also used)

Offers : Can I help you?




Could Possibility: That story could be true - who knows!

Past ability : Julie could swim when she was four years old.

Permission : Could I use your phone please?

Requests : Could you tell me the way to the station please?



May

Possibility : The President may come to visit our offices tomorrow
if the meeting finishes before 5pm.

Permission : May I borrow your dictionary?



Might
Slight possibility : We might win a prize but I doubt it!


Past form of 'may' in reported speech. The President said he

might come.



Should
Advice : You should take an umbrella. It's starting to rain.

Logical deduction : John has revised all day. He should be ready for his

exam.



Ought to
Advice : You ought to write to your grandmother.

Logical deduction : Here's 30€. That ought to be enough for a taxi.




Shall
Offers and suggestions Shall I order a taxi?

with 'I' and 'we' : Shall we begin the meeting now?



Will
Future tense auxiliary : Tomorrow I will be in New York.

Invitations/offers : Will you join us for coffee? Won't you come in?


from: Learn English Today